Insulin Resistance and Cannabis: What the Research Shows
Insulin resistance is common, and for many people it improves with changes to food, movement, sleep and weight, plus medicines when a doctor prescribes them. Medical cannabis has not been tested for insulin resistance in people. The research so far is animal and cell studies plus expert reviews, and in those models it was switching on CB1, the cannabis receptor that THC acts on, that made insulin work worse, not better.
Evidence level: animal and cell studies Built on peer-reviewed research published from 2009 to 2024: animal and cell studies and expert reviews
Why does insulin resistance feel so hard to fix?
Most people hear the words “insulin resistance” after a blood test, a talk about prediabetes, or a PCOS workup. Then comes a pile of advice that rarely fits real life. If you feel stuck, you are not imagining it, and you are not alone.
Tired and foggy after meals
A heavy, sleepy feeling an hour after lunch is one of the most common complaints. When cells answer insulin slowly, the body works harder to move sugar out of the blood, and energy can swing up and down through the day. Coffee covers it for a while. It does not fix it.
Weight that won’t move, and cravings that won’t quit
Extra insulin makes it easier to store fat, especially around the waist, and harder to use it. Many people describe being hungry again soon after eating, or craving something sweet in the afternoon. It can feel like willpower failing, when part of it is chemistry.
Advice that contradicts itself
Cut carbs. Eat every three hours. Fast. Never skip breakfast. Take cinnamon. One article says supplements work, the next says they are a scam. Without a plan built for you, it is hard to know which change matters most, and hard to keep going when results are slow.
The stakes are real but not a reason to panic: insulin resistance raises the chance of prediabetes, type 2 diabetes and fatty liver disease, and it often improves when it is caught early [1].
What brings you here today?
Choose the one closest to you.
Just diagnosed: start by knowing which test found it and what the numbers were, because “insulin resistance” is described differently from lab to lab. Then pick one habit to change first rather than five at once. See which tests confirm insulin resistance and what helps reverse it.
Prediabetes or a high A1C: this is the stage where change pays off most. A structured lifestyle program cut the chance of developing type 2 diabetes by more than half in a large national study [2]. See where to start and how long it takes.
PCOS or fertility: insulin resistance is common in polycystic ovary syndrome and can affect periods, skin and ovulation [3]. See the signs worth mentioning to your doctor and our page on infertility and medical cannabis.
Already using cannabis: the main questions are appetite, blood sugar swings and how it sits with your medicines, especially if you take insulin or a sulfonylurea. Read what is known about safety and the interactions to discuss with a doctor.
Thinking about a card: insulin resistance alone is rarely on a state list, so it matters what else is in your records and how your state words its rules. Read whether insulin resistance qualifies; the button to start an evaluation is there.
Already have a card: renewal means a repeat evaluation with your updated medicines, including any new diabetes or GLP-1 prescriptions. Choose your state from the list at the top of this page, and find past documents in your account.
What is insulin resistance, and is it the same as diabetes?
Insulin is a hormone your pancreas releases after you eat. Think of it as a key: it opens muscle, liver and fat cells so sugar (glucose) can move out of the blood and be used or stored. With insulin resistance, those cells answer the key slowly. Sugar lingers in the blood, so the pancreas sends out more insulin to push it through [1].
For years that extra insulin can keep blood sugar in the normal range, which is why many people feel fine and have no idea anything has changed. When the pancreas can no longer keep up, blood sugar starts to rise: first into the prediabetes range, then, for some people, into type 2 diabetes [1]. Extra weight around the belly, inactivity, poor sleep, some medicines and family history all make it more likely, and fat tissue that is inflamed sends signals that make muscles and the liver respond even less. More than 1 in 3 U.S. adults have prediabetes, and most of them don’t know it [4].
Where insulin stops working
Choose a part of the body to see what changes.
Muscle. Normally, muscles take up most of the sugar from a meal once insulin arrives. With insulin resistance, they let less of it in, so more stays in the blood after eating. This is also why movement helps so much: working muscles pull in sugar even with less insulin.
Liver. Normally, insulin tells the liver to stop releasing stored sugar between meals. With insulin resistance, the liver keeps releasing it, which pushes fasting blood sugar up, and it turns extra sugar into fat that can build up in the liver itself.
Fat tissue. Normally, insulin keeps fat stored and quiet. With insulin resistance, especially in belly fat, more fat is released into the blood and the tissue becomes inflamed, sending signals that make muscles and the liver respond to insulin even less.
Pancreas. Normally, it releases just enough insulin for each meal. With insulin resistance, it works overtime to keep blood sugar normal. Over years, some people’s insulin-making cells can’t keep pace, and that is when blood sugar climbs into the prediabetes or diabetes range.
Insulin resistance
What it is: cells responding poorly to insulin, so the body needs more of it to do the same job.
Blood sugar: often still normal, because the pancreas makes extra insulin to keep up.
What it tells you: a warning sign that can often be turned around, years before diabetes.
Type 2 diabetes
What it is: a disease in which blood sugar stays high because insulin is not working well and not enough is made.
Blood sugar: at diabetes levels, such as an A1C of 6.5% or higher or fasting glucose of 126 mg/dL or higher [5].
What it tells you: treatment and regular follow-up are needed to protect the eyes, kidneys, nerves and heart.
Quick answers
Does insulin resistance mean you are diabetic?
No. You can have insulin resistance without diabetes, and many people do. Prediabetes is diagnosed with an A1C of 5.7% to 6.4% or a fasting glucose of 100 to 125 mg/dL; diabetes starts at 6.5% and 126 mg/dL [5]. Insulin resistance can be present while both numbers are still normal.
Is insulin resistance type 1 or type 2 diabetes?
Neither, but it is the path toward type 2. Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease in which the body stops making insulin. People with type 1 can also develop insulin resistance, and then need more insulin for the same effect [1].
Can I have insulin resistance with a normal A1C or normal blood sugar?
Yes. Early on, the pancreas makes enough extra insulin to keep glucose and A1C normal, so standard tests can look fine while insulin levels are high [1]. That is why a doctor may look at fasting insulin, triglycerides, waist size or a glucose tolerance test as well.
How long until insulin resistance becomes diabetes?
There is no fixed timeline, and it is not inevitable. In the national Diabetes Prevention Program, people with prediabetes who followed a lifestyle program with modest weight loss and regular activity lowered their chance of developing type 2 diabetes by 58% over about three years [2].
How does insulin resistance affect the body?
Beyond blood sugar, it is linked with high blood pressure, high triglycerides and low HDL cholesterol, fatty liver disease, PCOS and damage to blood vessels over time; together these are often called metabolic syndrome [1]. Insulin resistance itself is not fatal, but the heart disease and stroke it can lead to are serious, which is why it is worth treating early.
What are the signs of insulin resistance?
Often there are none you can feel, and many people find out from a routine blood test. A test is more reliable than the mirror. Still, some signs are common enough to mention to a doctor, especially if several show up together. Insulin resistance also runs in families: a parent or sibling with type 2 diabetes raises your own chance [1].
What have you noticed?
Dark, velvety skin patches
Called acanthosis nigricans: darker, thicker skin on the back of the neck, in the armpits or groin. High insulin levels make skin cells grow faster, which is why a “dark neck” is a classic clue [1].
Skin tags
Small, soft flaps of skin on the neck, eyelids or under the arms. They are harmless on their own, but many of them, especially with dark patches, are worth mentioning at your next checkup [1].
Tired or foggy after meals
Feeling heavy, sleepy or unfocused an hour or two after eating, especially after a starchy meal. Yes, insulin resistance can make you tired, though poor sleep, anemia and thyroid problems can feel the same.
Hungry again soon after eating
Wanting food, often something sweet, not long after a full meal. Blood sugar that rises and then drops quickly can drive this pattern, and it makes eating less feel like a constant fight.
Weight around the waist
Fat stored around the belly is more closely tied to insulin resistance than weight elsewhere. A growing waist size can matter even when the number on the scale barely changes.
Acne, extra hair or thinning hair
High insulin can push the ovaries to make more androgens, hormones that cause adult acne, hair on the face or body, and thinning hair on the scalp. This is common with PCOS [3].
Irregular periods or trouble conceiving
Insulin resistance can disturb ovulation, and it is common in polycystic ovary syndrome, a leading cause of infertility [3]. Read more on infertility and medical cannabis.
High blood pressure or odd cholesterol results
Higher blood pressure, high triglycerides and low HDL cholesterol often travel with insulin resistance [1]. Together with a large waist and raised blood sugar, they form what doctors call metabolic syndrome.
Shaky spells a few hours after eating
Some people get sweaty, shaky or irritable two to four hours after a meal, when an oversized insulin surge overshoots. So yes, insulin resistance can cause low blood sugar episodes worth checking [6].
No signs in this group.
How is insulin resistance tested? Blood work, HOMA-IR and ICD-10 codes
There is no single routine test that says “insulin resistance: yes or no.” The most precise research method takes hours in a lab, so in everyday care a doctor puts the picture together from several ordinary blood tests, your waist, blood pressure and family history [1]. Here is what each test can and cannot tell you.
Choose a test
Fasting glucose
Sugar in the blood after at least 8 hours without food. Under 100 mg/dL is normal, 100 to 125 mg/dL is prediabetes, and 126 mg/dL or higher on two tests is diabetes [5].
A standard blood draw in the morning, before breakfast. Water is fine.
It is often normal in early insulin resistance, because extra insulin is still holding sugar down.
“If my fasting glucose is normal, should we also check insulin or do a glucose tolerance test?”
A1C
Your average blood sugar over roughly the past three months. Below 5.7% is normal, 5.7% to 6.4% is prediabetes, and 6.5% or higher is diabetes [5].
A simple blood draw at any time of day; no fasting needed.
A normal A1C does not rule out insulin resistance, and anemia or some blood conditions can make the number misleading.
“How has my A1C changed over the last few tests, and how often should we repeat it?”
Glucose tolerance test
How quickly your body clears a set dose of sugar. Two hours after a 75-gram glucose drink, 140 to 199 mg/dL is prediabetes and 200 mg/dL or higher is diabetes [5].
Fasting overnight, a blood draw, the sweet drink, then another draw two hours later. Plan for a morning at the lab.
It shows the result of insulin resistance, not insulin levels themselves, unless insulin is measured at the same time.
“Would a glucose tolerance test show more than my fasting results, given my symptoms?”
Fasting insulin
How much insulin your pancreas is making while you are fasting. A high level with normal glucose suggests the body is working harder to keep sugar normal.
A fasting blood draw, often ordered together with fasting glucose.
There is no universal “normal” range: insulin tests are not standardized across labs, so a value only makes sense against your own lab’s reference.
“Is fasting insulin useful in my case, and will my insurance cover it?”
HOMA-IR
An estimate of insulin resistance calculated from fasting glucose and fasting insulin taken in the same draw. The original formula multiplies fasting glucose in mg/dL by fasting insulin in µU/mL and divides by 405 (with glucose in mmol/L, the divisor is 22.5) [7]. A higher number means more resistance.
No extra blood: it is worked out from the two fasting results. Some labs print it on the report; otherwise your doctor calculates it.
There is no single cutoff. Labs measure insulin differently, and studies in different populations draw the line in different places, so the same number can mean different things. That is why this page gives the formula, not a calculator or a chart of “normal.”
“What does my HOMA-IR mean with this lab’s insulin test, and what would change your plan?”
Triglyceride-to-HDL ratio
Your triglycerides divided by your HDL (“good”) cholesterol, both from a standard lipid panel. High triglycerides with low HDL is a pattern that often comes with insulin resistance [1].
A routine cholesterol test, usually fasting. You can work out the ratio from a report you already have.
It is a rough clue, not a diagnosis. There is no agreed cutoff, and cholesterol medicines change both numbers.
“Do my triglycerides and HDL fit an insulin resistance pattern, or is something else going on?”
Diagnosis codes (ICD-10 and ICD-9)
Nothing: a code is how a diagnosis is written in your records and on insurance claims. Since October 1, 2024, ICD-10-CM has its own insulin resistance codes under E88.81: E88.810 metabolic syndrome, E88.811 insulin resistance syndrome, type A, E88.818 other insulin resistance, and E88.819 insulin resistance, unspecified. Prediabetes is coded R73.03 [8] [9].
Your clinician picks the code after reviewing your results; you can see it on your visit summary or claim.
Older records may show the retired ICD-9 code 277.7 (dysmetabolic syndrome X) or E88.81 without a fifth digit. Codes change yearly, so check the current edition [9].
“Which diagnosis is written in my chart?” State medical cannabis programs look at diagnoses in the records, not symptoms.
All tests side by side
| Test | What it measures | Fasting needed | Limits |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fasting glucose | Blood sugar after 8+ hours without food | Yes | Often normal early on |
| A1C | Average blood sugar over about 3 months | No | Normal A1C does not rule it out; anemia can skew it |
| Glucose tolerance test | Sugar 2 hours after a 75-gram glucose drink | Yes | Takes a morning; shows the result, not insulin itself |
| Fasting insulin | Insulin made while fasting | Yes | Not standardized between labs |
| HOMA-IR | Estimate from fasting glucose and insulin | Yes | No single cutoff; depends on the lab and population |
| Triglyceride-to-HDL ratio | Lipid pattern linked with insulin resistance | Usually | A clue only; affected by medicines |
Could medical cannabis be worth discussing with your insulin resistance?
Fourteen short questions about your diagnosis, your numbers and the medicines you take. Your answers stay on this page and show what to bring to a physician.
14 questions · about a minute · your answers stay in this browser
Can insulin resistance be reversed, and how long does it take?
Often, yes, or at least improved a great deal. Insulin resistance responds to the same few levers in most people: losing some weight if you carry extra, moving more, sleeping better and, when a doctor decides it is needed, medicine. In the national Diabetes Prevention Program, people with prediabetes aimed to lose 7% of their body weight and to be active 150 minutes a week, and they cut their chance of type 2 diabetes by 58%; for people 60 and older the drop was 71% [2].
How long does it take? Some people feel steadier energy within weeks, but lab numbers usually move over months, and there is no guarantee for any one person. It does not “last forever” either way: insulin resistance can return if the habits that improved it slip, so think of it as something you manage, not a box you tick once.
Where do you want to start?
Choose one; most people combine a few over time.
Food
Fewer sugary drinks and refined starches, more vegetables, beans and whole grains, and protein at each meal. Intermittent fasting helps some people eat less, but it is one way of cutting calories, not a special fix.
Fewer energy crashes after meals within a couple of weeks; fasting numbers over months.
“Is fasting safe with my medicines?” With insulin or a sulfonylurea, skipped meals can cause low blood sugar [6].
Movement
Brisk walking and strength training. Working muscles pull sugar out of the blood even with less insulin, so a short walk after meals counts.
Often within weeks, and the benefit fades if you stop, so regular beats intense.
“What kind of activity is safe for my heart, joints and blood sugar medicines?”
Sleep
Regular hours and treating sleep apnea if you snore loudly or wake unrefreshed. Short, broken sleep makes the body less sensitive to insulin and raises cravings the next day.
Hunger and energy can change within days of better sleep.
“Should I be tested for sleep apnea?” See also insomnia and medical cannabis.
Weight
If you carry extra weight, losing even a modest share of it, around 5% to 7% of body weight, improves insulin action [2]. Belly fat matters most.
Lab numbers usually improve over a few months of steady loss.
“What is a realistic target for me?” Read more on obesity and medical cannabis.
Medicines
Metformin, and for some people GLP-1 medicines such as semaglutide or tirzepatide, prescribed by a doctor. In the prevention program, metformin lowered diabetes risk by 31% [2].
Depends on the medicine; your doctor sets the timeline and the follow-up tests.
“Am I a candidate for medicine now, or should we try lifestyle changes first?”
True whatever you start with
- One change kept for months beats five changes kept for a week.
- Re-test at the interval your doctor suggests, usually a few months, so you can see what is working.
- Never stop or change a prescribed medicine without the doctor who prescribed it.
Insulin resistance diet: a food list
There is no single “insulin resistance diet” plan that beats the rest. The patterns that work share the same idea: steady, filling meals built from whole foods.
Build meals around
- Non-starchy vegetables: greens, broccoli, peppers, tomatoes
- Beans, lentils and chickpeas
- Whole grains: oats, brown rice, whole-wheat bread
- Fish, poultry, eggs, tofu or Greek yogurt
- Nuts, seeds, avocado and olive oil
- Water, unsweetened tea or coffee
Breakfast ideas: eggs with vegetables, plain yogurt with berries and nuts, or oatmeal with seeds instead of sweet cereal.
Cut back on
- Soda, sweet tea, juice and energy drinks
- White bread, pastries and sweet cereals
- Candy, cookies and desserts
- Processed meats such as bacon and sausage
- Fried foods and fast food
- Large portions late in the evening
Grocery list tip: shop the left column first, and keep the right column out of the house rather than relying on willpower.
Home remedies: what holds up
Cinnamon
What is known: studies of cinnamon for blood sugar have given mixed results, and it has not been shown to help diabetes or prevent it [10]. What is not: whether any amount reliably improves insulin resistance. Some cinnamon contains coumarin, which can harm the liver in large amounts.
Apple cider vinegar
What is known: small, short studies suggest vinegar with a meal may blunt the rise in blood sugar a little. What is not: good evidence that it changes insulin resistance over time is lacking. Undiluted vinegar can damage teeth and the throat.
Berberine
What is known: this plant extract has been studied for blood sugar, with some positive results, but supplements are not tested the way medicines are and product quality varies [10]. What is not: long-term safety. It can add to the effect of diabetes medicines and interact with others, so ask first.
Chromium, magnesium and other supplements
What is known: research on chromium and other supplements for blood sugar is inconsistent, and none replaces diet, activity or prescribed treatment [10]. What is not: who, if anyone, benefits. If a blood test shows you are low in a nutrient, correcting it is a different matter from taking extra.
Does cannabis help insulin resistance? What the research shows
Nobody knows yet, because it has not been tested in people. There are no clinical trials of cannabis, THC or CBD for insulin resistance. Almost all the research comes from animal and cell studies, plus expert reviews that summarize them. A few studies have followed groups of people who use cannabis and looked at their blood sugar and insulin, but that kind of study shows a link, not a cause, and cannot say whether cannabis would help someone who is insulin resistant.
| Level | What exists for insulin resistance | What it can and cannot tell you |
|---|---|---|
| Trials in people | None. No randomized trial has given cannabis, THC or CBD to people with insulin resistance. | This is the only kind of study that could show a treatment works, and it does not exist yet. |
| Observational studies | A few cohort studies comparing people who do and don’t use cannabis. | Show associations only; people who use cannabis differ in many other ways, so cause cannot be separated out. |
| Animal and lab work | Most of the evidence: mice, rats, dogs and cells, testing the CB1 receptor and single compounds such as CBD and CBG [11][12][13]. | Explains the biology and why scientists are interested; says nothing yet about patients. |
Browse the studies yourself
Every study cited on this page, in plain words. The neutral result is included.
Inflamed immune cells, resistin and the CB1 switch
Despite “in humans” in its title, this was lab work in mice carrying human resistin and in human immune cells. A high-fat diet built up 2-AG in belly fat, CB1 on immune cells drove resistin and inflammation, and insulin response weakened; a CB1 blocker countered it [11].
CBG and liver fats in insulin-resistant rats
Rats on a high-fat, high-sugar diet got CBG at 30 mg/kg by stomach tube for 14 days, in a 40-rat experiment. Liver fat signaling shifted and a marker of the insulin signal rose [13].
CBD and harmful fats in belly fat tissue
Male rats on a high-fat diet received CBD injections of 10 mg/kg daily for 14 days. Ceramides, fats linked to insulin resistance, fell by 42.2% in belly fat compared with the diet alone [14].
Cannabimovone, a lesser-known plant compound
In fat cells in a dish, this cannabis compound switched on PPARγ, a target of some diabetes drugs, and restored insulin-driven sugar uptake after a fatty-acid challenge [15].
How CB1 in the liver feeds insulin resistance
Summarizes animal evidence that CB1 in the liver weakens the insulin signal, and why newer research looks at blockers that stay out of the brain [16].
Early-life stress and more CB1 later
Mice stressed while nursing became insulin resistant as adults, with 55% more CB1 protein in the liver [17]. It links stress hormones to the same receptor.
Mice missing the GPR55 receptor
Without this cannabinoid-related receptor, mice carried more fat, moved 22% less and had a weaker insulin signal in the liver (88% lower) and muscle [18].
Gomisin N against CB1-driven insulin resistance
A compound from a different plant, given at 20 mg/kg daily for 6 weeks after 12 weeks of high-fat diet, blunted the effects of switching on liver CB1 [19].
Turning down CB1 in the liver’s immune cells
Silencing the CB1 gene only in Kupffer cells, immune cells of the liver, improved insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance in obese mice [20].
A CB1 blocker in aging mice
Rimonabant for 14 days improved glucose tolerance by 11% in aged mice compared with untreated ones, and the insulin signal in one muscle was about three times stronger [21].
Rimonabant in rats exposed to low oxygen
In 32 rats exposed to repeated low oxygen for 28 days, a model of sleep apnea, researchers tested how a CB1 blocker at 10 mg/kg a day changed sugar handling and the muscle sugar transporter GLUT4 [22].
No rise in anandamide in dogs on a high-fat diet
A neutral result: belly fat rose 81.3% and insulin sensitivity fell 31.3%, yet blood anandamide, one of the body’s own cannabinoids, did not go up [23].
An omega-3 relative of the body’s cannabinoids
DHEA, made from the omega-3 fat DHA, improved sugar uptake in mouse muscle cells treated at 25 µM for 24 hours [24].
Liver CB1 and ceramide build-up
A CB1 blocker that stays out of the brain, JD5037 at 3 mg/kg a day for 28 days, reduced weight, liver fat and liver insulin resistance in diet-obese mice [25].
Liver CB1 blocks the insulin signal
In mice, liver CB1 raised PHLPP1, an enzyme that switches off the insulin signal. Liver samples from people with fatty liver disease carried 34.2 times more CB1 activity than controls [12].
Flooding the body’s own cannabinoids
One dose of a drug that stops endocannabinoids from breaking down caused liver fat, insulin resistance and glucose intolerance in mice, through CB1 [26].
Where insulin resistance starts: fat tissue
Argues that troubled fat tissue is an early step in insulin resistance, and notes that insulin normally holds back endocannabinoid production in fat [27].
No studies of this type are cited on this page.
What kinds of studies is this evidence built on?
How to read it: each row is one kind of study, and the bar shows how many studies of that kind there are. The blue bar is research that followed people; gray bars are commentary, animal and lab work, which cannot show whether something helps patients.
Show as a table
| Design | Studies |
|---|---|
| Cohort studies in people | 3 |
| Narrative reviews | 9 |
| Animal studies | 14 |
| Cell studies | 2 |
| Years | Studies |
|---|---|
| 2009 to 2013 | 3 |
| 2014 to 2018 | 7 |
| 2019 to 2024 | 7 |
Every figure on this page is tied to its published source in the reference list at the end, and every result from animals or cells is labeled that way. The content is reviewed by the medical team listed on our physicians page.
Why switching on the body’s cannabis receptor made things worse in animals
Your body makes its own cannabis-like chemicals, called endocannabinoids, and has receptors that respond to them. Together they form the endocannabinoid system, which helps control appetite, fat storage and how the liver handles sugar. The main receptor is CB1. THC, the part of cannabis that causes a high, works largely by switching CB1 on. A plain-language overview is in our guide to the endocannabinoid system.
Here is the paradox. In animal studies, an overactive CB1 system went along with insulin resistance, and blocking CB1 improved it [16]. That is the opposite of “cannabis helps.” It does not prove THC harms people with insulin resistance either, because nobody has tested that, but it means the animal data cannot be read as support for THC.
What happened in the animals when CB1 was…
When CB1 was switched on
Step 1
A high-fat diet makes 2-AG, one of the body’s own cannabinoids, build up in belly fat.
In miceStep 2
CB1 on incoming immune cells switches on; they release resistin and inflame the fat [11].
In miceStep 3
In the liver, CB1 raises PHLPP1, which switches off the insulin signal Akt, and ceramides pile up [12][25].
In miceResult in mice: worse
Muscle and liver respond less to insulin, and blood sugar handling suffers [11].
In mice
Switching CB1 on pushed every step toward insulin resistance. The same was seen when mice got a single dose of a drug that let their own cannabinoids pile up [26].
When CB1 was blocked
Step 1
Aged mice get rimonabant, a drug that blocks CB1, daily for 14 days.
In miceStep 2
The insulin signal (Akt) in a leg muscle becomes about three times stronger [21].
In miceResult in mice: better
Glucose tolerance improves and body fat falls [21].
In mice
Result in people: worse
First-generation CB1 blockers caused anxiety, depression and suicidal thoughts, and rimonabant was withdrawn from the European market for these psychiatric risks [28].
In people
What this means for THC
Step 1
THC switches CB1 on.
Mechanism onlyStep 2
That is the same direction that weakened the insulin signal in the animal models above.
Mechanism onlyResult: not tested
No study in this research gave THC to animals or people with insulin resistance.
No data
So the honest summary is a question mark leaning the wrong way, not a green light. Whether occasional or medical THC use changes insulin resistance in people is unknown.
CBD, CBG and other cannabis compounds: what each study tested
“Cannabis” covers very different substances. THC causes a high; CBD and CBG do not; other plant compounds are barely known; and your body makes its own cannabinoids. A result for one does not carry over to another. THCV, often marketed for appetite and blood sugar, was not tested for insulin resistance in any study behind this page. The doses below describe what researchers gave animals or cells. They are not advice and cannot be converted into a human dose.
Choose a compound
CBD and insulin resistance
CBD injected at 10 mg/kg a day for 14 days [14].
Male rats on a high-fat diet In rats
Fewer ceramides in belly fat and better insulin-signal markers. Never tested for insulin resistance in people.
CBG
CBG at 30 mg/kg by stomach tube for 14 days, in a 40-rat experiment [13].
Rats on a high-fat, high-sugar diet In rats
Liver fat signaling and the insulin signal shifted in a helpful direction. One study, in rats only.
THC
Not tested for insulin resistance in this research.
No animal or human study No data
THC switches on CB1, the direction that worsened insulin action in animals. See the CB1 paradox.
Cannabimovone
A minor cannabis compound tested up to 30 µM in a dish [15].
Fat cells and kidney cells Cells only
Switched on PPARγ and restored sugar uptake in cells. Not tested in animals or people.
DHEA (from omega-3)
A body-made cannabinoid at 25 µM for 24 hours [24].
Mouse muscle cells Cells only
Improved sugar uptake in cells. Says nothing about omega-3 supplements or cannabis products.
Anandamide
Blood levels during 22 weeks of high-fat diet [23].
Dogs and their pancreas cells In dogs
Neutral: insulin resistance developed, but anandamide did not rise. Not every cannabinoid follows the CB1 story.
No compounds in this group.
How big is the effect?
In people, unknown: no study has measured it. Below is everything the animal studies measured, as the percentage change compared with the animals that did not get the treatment. None of these studies reported a margin of error (a confidence interval), so the numbers cannot be drawn on an effect scale or compared with each other.
| What was measured | Change (source) | Compared with | Model |
|---|---|---|---|
| Liver S1P, a fat-derived signal | +53.1% [13] | High-fat, high-sugar diet alone | Rats given CBG |
| Active insulin-signal protein (Akt) in the liver | +161.6% [13] | High-fat, high-sugar diet alone | Rats given CBG |
| Body weight | −8.4% [13] | High-fat, high-sugar diet alone | Rats given CBG |
| Ceramides in belly fat | −42.2% [14] | High-fat diet alone | Rats given CBD |
| Glucose tolerance (area under the curve) | 11% better [21] | Untreated aged mice | Mice given rimonabant, a CB1 blocker |
| Body mass (area under the curve) | 8.5% lower [21] | Untreated aged mice | Mice given rimonabant, a CB1 blocker |
How the CBG study was done
The experiment ran for 6 weeks in total and used 40 rats split into four groups: a standard diet or a high-fat, high-sugar diet, each with or without CBG. CBG was given at 30 mg/kg through a stomach tube for the last 14 days [13]. CBG boosted enzymes that break down ceramides, so S1P built up in the liver (142.8% above the standard-diet group) and the insulin signal improved. Only male rats were used, and the team did not test whether the fat changes caused the insulin improvement.
Fatty liver (NAFLD/MASLD) and cannabis: what research shows
Fatty liver disease and insulin resistance feed each other. When the liver stops responding to insulin, it keeps making sugar and turns the extra into fat, and a fat-laden liver responds to insulin even less. The condition used to be called non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD); since 2023 doctors call it metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD), a name that points straight at the metabolic cause [29]. It often has no symptoms until a blood test or scan finds it.
The cannabis research here is about the liver’s CB1 receptor. In mice, switching it on increased liver fat and insulin resistance, and blocking or removing it did the reverse [12][25][26]. In rats, CBG changed how the liver handles sphingolipids, a family of fats that includes ceramides [13].
Fatty liver and CBD
What was tested: no study in this research tested CBD on the liver. CBD was tested on belly fat in rats [14]; the liver data come from CBG.
What it shows: nothing yet about fatty liver in people. Large doses of prescription CBD can raise liver enzymes, so it needs monitoring [30].
Fatty liver and THC
What was tested: no study here gave THC. Mice in which liver CB1, the receptor THC switches on, was overactive built up liver fat [26].
What it shows: a reason for caution, not proof of harm in people. Whether THC affects fatty liver in humans is unknown.
How the liver studies were done
In the 2012 study, mouse models in which liver CB1 was present or absent were fed a diet with 60% of calories from fat; liver CB1 was enough to cause insulin resistance by weakening the insulin signal and slowing insulin clearance [12]. In the 2014 study, diet-obese mice got JD5037, a CB1 blocker that stays out of the brain, at 3 mg/kg a day for 28 days; it lowered long-chain ceramides made in the liver and improved liver insulin resistance [25]. In the 2011 study, a single dose of a drug that stops endocannabinoid breakdown caused liver fat, insulin resistance and glucose intolerance in mice, and the effect ran through CB1 [26].
Does the way cannabis is used matter?
Yes, for some risks, and no for others. Cannabis is not only smoked: people vape it, eat it in gummies and drinks, swallow capsules or oils, hold drops under the tongue, or put it on the skin. Each form avoids some problems and keeps others. With insulin resistance, two questions matter that rarely come up elsewhere: hidden sugar and calories, and appetite. This section explains the differences; it does not recommend a form.
How is it used, or how would it be?
Choose the closest; many people combine more than one.
Specific to smoking
Joints, blunts, pipes and bongs burn plant material, and the smoke irritates the throat and lungs. Smoking also strains blood vessels, which already take a hit from insulin resistance. The effect starts within minutes and is hard to measure in milligrams.
Specific to vaping and dabbing
Dry-herb vaporizers, oil pens and cartridges avoid burning, but hot vapor still travels the same airways. Concentrates used for dabbing, such as wax, shatter or rosin, are very strong, which makes the dose even harder to control.
Shared devices
A joint, pipe or vape passed between people also passes on colds and other infections.
Specific to edibles and drinks
Gummies, chocolates, baked goods and cannabis drinks avoid smoke entirely, but many of them are sweets: they bring sugar and calories along with the cannabinoid, which counts on a day you are watching carbs. Capsules and oils swallowed on their own avoid that. All swallowed forms act slowly, often an hour or more, last for hours and pass through the liver before reaching the blood. The classic mistake is a second piece “because the first did nothing.”
Specific to tinctures and sprays
Drops held under the tongue and mouth sprays avoid the lungs and are measured by the drop or spray, usually without added sugar. Part of the dose is still swallowed and handled by the liver, and some oils are mixed with carrier fats or flavorings worth reading on the label.
Specific to topicals and patches
Creams and balms act mainly where they are applied and are not a way to affect blood sugar or appetite. Transdermal patches are different: they deliver cannabinoids into the bloodstream, so their effects and interactions count the same as any other form.
Specific to prescription cannabinoids
Dronabinol (Marinol, Syndros), nabilone (Cesamet) and cannabidiol (Epidiolex) are FDA-approved medicines with an exact dose, prescribed by a doctor and filled at a pharmacy, not bought with a medical card [30]. None is approved for insulin resistance, and dronabinol is approved partly because it stimulates appetite.
True of every form
- THC can increase appetite and cravings, whatever the form.
- Being high can make the warning signs of low blood sugar easier to miss.
- Whatever reaches the blood is handled by the liver and can change levels of other medicines.
- No driving after use.
THC and CBD are not interchangeable: an effect or risk of one does not carry over to a product with only the other. Choosing a form is a conversation for the appointment.
All forms as a table
| Form | What it avoids | What remains |
|---|---|---|
| Smoking | Delay in onset; added sugar | Smoke in the airways, strain on blood vessels, shared devices, hard-to-measure dose, all effects of THC |
| Vaping & dabbing | Burning plant material; added sugar | Hot vapor in the airways, very strong concentrates, shared devices, all effects of THC |
| Edibles & drinks | Smoke and vapor, shared devices | Sugar and calories in many products, slow and long effect, risk of a repeat dose, liver processing, interactions |
| Capsules & swallowed oils | Smoke and vapor, most added sugar | Slow and long effect, liver processing, appetite, interactions |
| Tinctures & sprays | Smoke and vapor, shared devices | Effects on the brain and appetite, partly swallowed dose, interactions |
| Topicals | Most effects on the whole body | Skin reactions; no effect on blood sugar |
| Transdermal patches | Smoke, vapor and swallowing | Effects on the brain and appetite, interactions |
| Prescription cannabinoids | Unknown product content | Appetite changes, drowsiness, interactions; not approved for insulin resistance |
What science doesn’t know yet
The gaps are not a footnote here; they are most of the story. The researchers themselves list the same limits again and again.
- No trials in people. Even the study with “in humans” in its title relied on mice and cells; direct clinical data are absent [11].
- Mostly male animals. Key experiments used only male rats or mice, so nobody knows whether females respond the same way, which matters for PCOS and pregnancy [13][18][17].
- Short courses. Treatments ran for about two weeks, while insulin resistance develops and is managed over years [14][13][21].
- Small groups. Some studies had only about ten animals per group, too few to spot rare harms or modest effects [14].
- Cells are not bodies. Results seen in a dish have not been checked in living animals, with no data on how the body absorbs the compound or what side effects it causes [15].
- Rodents are not people. Mouse and rat metabolism differs from ours, and even where a receptor sits in fat tissue can differ between species [18].
- Reviews without a system. The expert reviews summarize selected studies rather than searching and grading all of them [16][27].
Is cannabis safe if you have insulin resistance?
There is no safety data specific to insulin resistance; the research behind this page is animal and cell work and records no side effects in people with this condition. What follows is what is known about cannabis in general, and why some of it weighs more when blood sugar is the concern.
The rimonabant lesson
Rimonabant is not cannabis: it blocks CB1. It helped weight and blood sugar but was withdrawn in Europe over depression and suicidal thoughts [28]. The receptor touches mood as well as metabolism.
Appetite and cravings
THC can stimulate appetite; a prescription form of THC is approved partly for that reason [30]. When you are trying to eat less sugar and starch, late-night snacking can undo the day’s effort.
Low blood sugar can be harder to notice
Shakiness, sweating, confusion and hunger are warning signs of low blood sugar [6]. Being high can feel similar or blur them, which matters most if you take insulin or a sulfonylurea.
Mental health and cannabis use disorder
Some people who use cannabis develop cannabis use disorder, a pattern of use that is hard to control, and THC can worsen anxiety or psychosis in people at risk [31].
Thinking and memory
THC affects attention, memory and decision-making while it acts [31]. That can make sticking to a meal plan, medicine times and blood sugar checks harder.
Driving and drowsiness
Cannabis slows reaction time and impairs driving [31]. Never drive after use, and take extra care if low blood sugar is also possible.
Drug interactions to discuss with a doctor
Open each one. The studies behind this page did not test drug interactions, so what follows comes from FDA information and from how each medicine works. It is not a complete list.
Metformin Mechanism only
No study here tested cannabis with metformin. On its own, metformin rarely causes low blood sugar. The practical questions are appetite changes from THC and whether use affects how regularly you eat and take your doses. Do not stop metformin to try cannabis.
Insulin Mechanism only
Insulin can cause low blood sugar, especially if a meal is late or smaller than planned [6]. Cannabis can change when and how much you eat and can blur the warning signs of a low, so the risk of hypoglycemia is the main point to discuss.
Sulfonylureas (glipizide, glyburide) Mechanism only
These pills push the pancreas to release insulin and are among the diabetes medicines most likely to cause low blood sugar [6]. The same concerns as with insulin apply: irregular meals and lows that are harder to recognize.
GLP-1 medicines (semaglutide, tirzepatide) Mechanism only
GLP-1 medicines curb appetite and slow the stomach; THC tends to do the opposite for appetite, so the two can pull against each other. Nausea is common on GLP-1 medicines, which is a reason some people ask about cannabis. On their own they rarely cause lows, but the risk rises when they are combined with insulin or a sulfonylurea [6].
Statins and blood-pressure medicines Mechanism only
People with insulin resistance often take these too. No study here tested them with cannabis. Many of them are cleared by liver enzymes, and CBD can change how the liver handles other medicines [30], so your physician checks them one by one. Dizziness on standing is worth mentioning if you take blood-pressure pills.
Many medicines at once (liver enzyme interactions) Label data
CBD and THC are processed by the CYP450 liver enzymes that also handle many common medicines. FDA information on prescription CBD lists drug interactions and possible liver injury, and notes that this needs a doctor’s oversight [30]. The more medicines you take, the more this matters.
Bring the complete list to the appointment: prescriptions with doses, over-the-counter medicines, supplements such as berberine or cinnamon, and anything taken “only sometimes.” That list, more than the diagnosis, decides whether cannabis is reasonable to discuss at all.
Who should not use cannabis for this
For some people the answer is “not now” or “not at all,” whatever the reason for asking. There is no evidence of safety for these groups, and some face clear risks.
- A history of psychosis in yourself or close family; THC can trigger or worsen it. See cannabis and psychosis.
- Depression or suicidal thoughts, now or in the past; the CB1 system affects mood, as the rimonabant story showed [28].
- Pregnancy, trying to conceive or breastfeeding; THC passes to the baby, and many people with PCOS are planning a pregnancy.
- Frequent episodes of low blood sugar, especially on insulin or a sulfonylurea.
- Liver disease that is not being monitored; anything swallowed passes through the liver, and CBD can raise liver enzymes [30].
- Driving for work or doing hazardous work where slowed reactions put you or others at risk.
Talk to a licensed physician about whether any of these apply
Is insulin resistance a qualifying condition for a medical card?
Usually not by itself. Every state medical cannabis program keeps its own list of qualifying conditions, and insulin resistance is generally not named on those lists. Some states, though, let a physician certify any condition they judge to be serious or debilitating, and many people with insulin resistance also have a condition that is listed.
What counts is a diagnosis in your records, not a symptom. The lists change as legislatures and health departments update them, so the current wording for your state is the one that matters, and the physician confirms it at the evaluation.
Your state lets the physician decide
Some programs allow certification for conditions a physician considers debilitating. Bring records that show how insulin resistance and anything linked to it affect you.
A condition you also have is listed
Chronic pain, neuropathy, anxiety or insomnia may be on the list even where insulin resistance is not. A diagnosis in your chart matters more than a symptom alone.
Neither applies
A card may not be available for you yet where you live. Some states accept petitions to add new conditions, and lists change.
What else has a doctor diagnosed?
State lists name diagnoses, not symptoms; pick what is in your records.
Obesity: it travels closely with insulin resistance, and a few programs list it or cover it under broader wording. Read obesity and medical cannabis.
Chronic pain or neuropathy: chronic pain is the most widely listed condition across state programs, and nerve pain can come with long-standing high blood sugar. Read chronic pain and medical cannabis.
Anxiety: several states list anxiety disorders or accept them under broader wording. Read anxiety and medical cannabis.
Insomnia: poor sleep worsens insulin sensitivity, and a diagnosed sleep disorder is listed in some programs. Read insomnia and medical cannabis.
None of these: then the decision rests on your state’s wording and the physician’s judgment. Start with your state’s medical marijuana laws.
Medical card or recreational purchase
In states with adult-use sales, adults can buy without a card. A card still changes several things, though the details are set state by state.
| Aspect | With a medical card | Recreational |
|---|---|---|
| Taxes | Often lower; some states waive part of the cannabis tax for patients | Full state and local cannabis taxes |
| Purchase and possession limits | Often higher; depends on your state | Set for adult-use buyers |
| Products | Medical dispensaries and, in some states, medical-only products, including low-sugar forms such as tinctures and capsules | Adult-use product range |
| Age | Patient age rules set by each program | Adult-use age limit set by the state |
| Physician involvement | A licensed physician reviews your conditions and your diabetes and heart medicines | None |
| Document | State card or recommendation, recorded in a confidential registry | Government ID only |
Will a card save you money?
It can, but only where your state taxes patients less than recreational buyers, and the amount depends on your state’s tax rates and how much you buy. Weigh that against the evaluation fee and any state registration fee. The breakdown is in medical vs. recreational cannabis taxes, and the wider differences in medical and recreational cannabis compared.
What the program in your state involves
Qualifying is the first of two steps. In most states a physician’s recommendation is followed by registration with the state health department, which issues the card and enters you in a confidential patient registry; in a few, the recommendation itself is what a dispensary asks for. Purchases happen at licensed dispensaries, and products there are lab-tested and labeled with their THC and CBD content.
Whether a state is medical-only or also allows adult-use sales, how much a patient may possess, how patients are taxed and whether home cultivation is allowed are all set state by state and listed on the laws and regulations pages. Many state laws also let a patient name a registered caregiver; who qualifies is set by each state. Cards from one state are not automatically valid in another: see which states accept out-of-state cards.
What this means if you are considering it
A good evaluation is a conversation about why you are asking, the medicines you already take and what would count as “better.” For insulin resistance, the honest goal is not to treat the condition with cannabis, but to understand whether a qualifying condition you have could be helped, and whether cannabis would clash with your blood sugar plan. It goes faster and safer when the facts are on the table.
What to bring to the appointment
Tap each item as you get it ready.
Questions worth asking
- Which of my current medicines could interact, and what would we watch for?
- Could THC make my appetite or blood sugar harder to manage?
- THC, CBD or both, and why that choice for my qualifying condition?
- How would we know within a few weeks whether it is helping or hurting?
- What should make me stop right away, and whom do I call?
An evaluation makes sense if
- You have a diagnosis your state may list, such as chronic pain or insomnia.
- Your full medicine list can be reviewed.
- You are keeping up your blood sugar care and follow-up tests.
- You want a physician’s view rather than a store clerk’s.
It is not the right step if
- The hope is to reverse insulin resistance with cannabis.
- You plan to stop metformin, insulin or a GLP-1 medicine.
- You have frequent low blood sugar episodes.
- You are pregnant or have a history of psychosis.
This page summarizes published research for education. It does not replace a physician’s advice. Cannabis has not been shown to treat insulin resistance in people, and people taking insulin or sulfonylureas face a higher risk of low blood sugar.
How to get a medical card for insulin resistance online
Everything happens online, so there is nowhere to travel. The physician looks at the whole picture, including any qualifying condition you have alongside insulin resistance. Four steps take you from the first form to a card in your hand.
Fill in the intake form
Your state, your diagnoses and your current medicines. Have recent lab results and any record of a qualifying diagnosis ready to upload.
See a physician licensed in your state
A one-on-one appointment online. You agree on the time with the physician; keep an hour free rather than a minute.
Receive your signed recommendation
If the physician approves, the signed recommendation arrives in your account after the appointment, depending on your state.
Register with your state
Where required, you submit the recommendation to the state program, which reviews it and issues the card.
What you end up with
Across 250 reviews from patients in the states where we are licensed. We do not sort them by score and do not hide the low ones.
- 150,000+patients evaluated – everyone who has been through an appointment with us, in every state where we are licensed
- Since 2017doing only this: online evaluations for medical cannabis programs, and nothing else on the side
A recommendation from a physician licensed where you live, and, once your state registers it, a card that lets you buy at licensed dispensaries. Your documents stay in your account and documents, and how the medical card works explains the evaluation in detail. The physicians who see patients are listed on our physicians page.
Programs for veterans and for people with low income are available in some states.
Questions people ask about insulin resistance and cannabis
How long does it take to reverse insulin resistance?
It varies. Many people feel steadier energy within weeks of changing food, activity and sleep, while lab numbers usually improve over a few months. In the Diabetes Prevention Program, a lifestyle program cut the chance of type 2 diabetes by 58% over about three years [2]. There is no fixed date, and the gains last only as long as the habits do.
Can insulin resistance make you tired?
Yes, many people describe tiredness or brain fog, especially after meals. Fatigue has many other causes too, including poor sleep, sleep apnea, anemia and thyroid problems, so it is worth checking rather than assuming.
Can I have insulin resistance with a normal A1C?
Yes. Early on, extra insulin keeps glucose and A1C in the normal range [1]. If you have signs such as dark skin patches, a growing waist or PCOS, ask whether fasting insulin, a lipid panel or a glucose tolerance test would add information. See how insulin resistance is tested.
How do insulin resistance and GLP-1 medicines fit together?
GLP-1 medicines such as semaglutide and tirzepatide help the body release insulin after meals, slow the stomach and reduce appetite, which helps weight and blood sugar. They are prescribed for type 2 diabetes and for weight management, not for insulin resistance alone. THC tends to push appetite the other way, which is one reason to tell your physician about both.
Does CBD lower blood sugar?
Can I use cannabis with metformin?
No study has tested the combination. Metformin alone rarely causes low blood sugar, so the main questions are appetite, how regularly you eat and take your doses, and any other medicines you take. Decide with your physician, and never stop metformin to try cannabis. More in drug interactions to discuss with a doctor.
Will cannabis make me hungry?
THC often does; a prescription form of THC is approved partly to stimulate appetite [30]. Products with mostly CBD are less linked to the munchies, but labels do not always match what is inside. If you are working on your weight or carbs, plan for it rather than hope it won’t happen.
Is delta-8 THC the same as medical cannabis?
No. Delta-8 THC sold in shops and online is not FDA-approved, is often made by chemically converting CBD, and has led to reports of harmful effects; products may be mislabeled [32]. Its legal status differs by state. It acts much like regular THC, including on appetite, with less oversight of what is in the package.
Is an online evaluation legitimate?
Yes, where state law allows telemedicine for medical cannabis evaluations. The appointment is with a physician licensed in your state, one-on-one, and the recommendation is the same document an in-person visit would produce. See how the medical card works.
Can I use my card in another state?
Sometimes. Reciprocity, one state honoring another state’s card, exists in some states and not others, and rules for visitors vary. Check which states accept out-of-state cards and traveling with cannabis before a trip.
What if my card is lost?
Most states let you request a replacement from the program that issued it. The steps are in what to do if your card is lost and the medical card FAQ.
How do I renew my medical card?
Cards expire on a schedule your state sets, and renewal means a repeat evaluation with updated medicines and a new recommendation. Bring any changes since last time, such as a new prediabetes or diabetes diagnosis or a new GLP-1 prescription, because they can change the physician’s advice. Choose your state from the list at the top of this page, or see how the medical card works.
How much does it cost, and what if I’m not approved?
The evaluation fee for your state is shown before you pay; a state registration fee, where one exists, is paid to the state separately. Whether a recommendation is issued is the physician’s medical decision. Details for both are on how the medical card works.
Who finds out? Privacy, firearms and work
Privacy: your medical records are protected under the HIPAA Privacy Rule [33], and state patient registries are confidential; dispensaries and law enforcement can usually check only whether a card is valid.
Firearms: federal law bars anyone who is an “unlawful user” of a controlled substance from having a firearm [34], and cannabis remains federally controlled, so a state card does not change the federal rule. Talk to a lawyer about your situation.
Work: employment protections for card holders differ by state, and many employers can still test and enforce drug-free policies. Read your state’s rules on the laws and regulations pages.
More research on cannabis and insulin resistance
This page cites a selection of studies. Our research library holds every study we track on cannabis and insulin resistance, from laboratory work to clinical trials, and lets you filter them by cannabinoid, study type and year.
- studies
- 130+
- in people
- 48
- clinical trials
- 2
References
34 sources
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- 2. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP). 2026.
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- 4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prediabetes: Your Chance to Prevent Type 2 Diabetes. 2026.
- 5. American Diabetes Association. Diagnosis. 2026.
- 6. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Low Blood Glucose (Hypoglycemia). 2026.
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- 11. Resistin Regulates Inflammation and Insulin Resistance in Humans via the Endocannabinoid System. DOI: 10.34133/research.0326 PMID: 39050819
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- 13. How Does CBG Administration Affect Sphingolipid Deposition in the Liver of Insulin-Resistant Rats? DOI: 10.3390/nu15204350 PMID: 37892425
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- 15. Identification and Characterization of Cannabimovone, a Cannabinoid from Cannabis sativa, as a Novel PPARγ Agonist via a Combined Computational and Functional Study. DOI: 10.3390/molecules25051119 PMID: 32138197
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- 18. GPR55 deficiency is associated with increased adiposity and impaired insulin signaling in peripheral metabolic tissues. DOI: 10.1096/fj.201800171R PMID: 30148676
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- 20. Decreasing CB1 receptor signaling in Kupffer cells improves insulin sensitivity in obese mice. DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2017.08.011 PMID: 29107297
- 21. CB1 receptor blockade counters age-induced insulin resistance and metabolic dysfunction. DOI: 10.1111/acel.12438 PMID: 26757949
- 22. Effect of Intermittent Hypoxia and Rimonabant on Glucose Metabolism in Rats: Involvement of Expression of GLUT4 in Skeletal Muscle. DOI: 10.12659/msm.896039 PMID: 26503060
- 23. High-fat diet-induced insulin resistance does not increase plasma anandamide levels or potentiate anandamide insulinotropic effect in isolated canine islets. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0123558 PMID: 25855974
- 24. Docosahexaenoyl ethanolamide improves glucose uptake and alters endocannabinoid system gene expression in proliferating and differentiating C2C12 myoblasts. DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2014.00100 PMID: 24711795
- 25. Hepatic cannabinoid-1 receptors mediate diet-induced insulin resistance by increasing de novo synthesis of long-chain ceramides. DOI: 10.1002/hep.26606 PMID: 23832510
- 26. Acute overactive endocannabinoid signaling induces glucose intolerance, hepatic steatosis, and novel cannabinoid receptor 1 responsive genes. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0026415 PMID: 22073164
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- 29. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease (MASLD). 2026.
- 30. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Regulation of Cannabis and Cannabis-Derived Products, Including Cannabidiol (CBD). 2026.
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- 32. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 5 Things to Know about Delta-8 Tetrahydrocannabinol. 2026.
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- 34. Legal Information Institute, Cornell Law School. 18 U.S. Code § 922: Unlawful acts. 2026.